Werish

=Phonology=

Consonants

 * When a stem has /s/ initially or finaly and the /s/ is adjacent to the vowel in the stem, the /s/ will become /r/ is an affix is applied that begins/ends in a vowel.
 * Clusters with the shape VC+C (here + denotes a morpheme boundary) are not permitted in Werish. When an affix beginning in a consonant attaches to a stem ending in a consonant, the first consonant is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened.
 * /k/ voices to [g] before /ɵ(ː) ɵ̃(ː)/

Vowels

 * When a stem ends in /uCV/ then when a suffix beginning in a vowel is applied the sequence becomes /wiCV/ (the same happens regardless is the /u/ is long and/or nasal).

Phonological History
{uː ũː oː õː} {eː ẽː iː ĩː} > u i

e ẽ o õ > a

v f s z h > b p t d ʔ/_#, (_)C[-voice](_)!#_

u ũ ũː > wi wĩ wĩː/open syllable!=j_

k(ː)ʷj >c͡ç

l > ∅/_j

ɨ ɨː ɨ̃ ɨ̃ː > u uː ũ ũː/_C[+velar]

u uː ũ ũ > ʉ ʉː ʉ̃ ʉ̃ː/_{r l}

g>∅/_#

C[+palatal] C[+velar, +labial] C[+else]>Ci Cu Ca/_{#,C}!C=A, #_

V>∅/#_{N,A,l,r}


 * 1) EC>#jEC


 * 1) BC > #wBC


 * 1) CC > #aCC

kʷ kːʷ > g gː

sː zː > ʃ ʒ

x(ː) ɣ(ː) > χ

{tː dː} {rː lː} > ʈ ɽ

kː gː > q

bː > b̪

t͡ʃː d͡ʒː > c͡ç

mb nd ɲɟ > m n ɲ

wː > ʁ̞

ɨ̃ ɨ̃ː > ĩ ĩː

=Noun Phrase=

Common Nouns
The below table demonstrates the most common declension of nouns. Buzzard nouns that end in CV will lose the CV and lengthen the previous vowel when the case ending begins in a consonant. Thanks to Werish adding epenthetic vowels to the end of words, both buzzard and deer nouns end in vowels. Buzzard nouns ending in /kV/ take the oblique suffix -a and the suppressive suffix -ak. When a noun ends in /r/ and takes on a suffix containing /r/, the first /r/ becomes /d/. When a noun ends in a nasal vowel, the nasal vowel becomes /Vn/ when suffixes are applied. Buzzard nouns lose their word final epenthetic vowels when inflected.

The plural forms of common nouns are formed quite differently from other declensions. Plurals in this declension are formed by reduplicating the first CV of the noun as a prefix. If the V in V is /u/ then in the reduplicated prefix it becomes /wi/. Nouns beginning in vowels just attach the prefix n-.
 * suku ("hand") > swisuku ("hands")
 * jiî ("ermine") > jijiî ("ermines")
 * atîlagira ("blanket") > natîlagira ("blankets")

Broken Nouns
Broken nouns are comprised of buzzard gender nouns that have lost the word final plosives /b t d g/ in the nominative singular but keep them in all other cases and numbers. It is not predicative as to which plosive will resurface. This declension is thanks to Old Moca experiencing the change /p b t d/ > ∅/_#. broken nouns with word final long vowels do not lose the resurfaced plosive even when the case ending begins in a consonant.

U-Nouns
U-nouns are a class of nouns that end in the vowel û

Zero-Grade Nouns
Buzzard gender zero-grade nouns contain the sequences a, al, am, is, iv. When suffixes are applied to these nouns the vowel of the stem can change in rather unpredictable ways If there are two adjacent syllables with these sequences then the vowel may be reduplicated in both. If the syllabic consonant was before a consonant then it will be dropped and lengthen the previous reduplicated vowel. Note that zero-grade forms can be quite irregular.


 * vala ("music, song, melody, tune") > virra ("songs")
 * asga ("cricket") > asgala ("cricket-")
 * dajisa ("heron") > adjarada ("heron-")

Deer gender zero-grade nouns end in vowels or /l r n/.


 * galatala ("hedgehog") > agjįdji ("hedgehogs")
 * abwitamu ("minnow") > butji ("minnows")
 * asta ("stalk") > astagûra ("stalk-")

Geo-Nouns
-Geo nouns are nouns that have been derived from verbs with the suffix -ga (from the suffix -geo in Old Sumrë). Nouns formed this way have their own case paradigm. Since -Geo noun endings only differ from buzzard/deer endings in the nominative and oblique cases this table will exclude the locative cases. Geo-nouns can be either animate or inanimate. Since the causes that created each noun class happened before Old Sumrë gained its locative cases only the nominative, accusative, genitive and dative forms differ in each declension, with the locative causes being identical for every declension.-Geo nouns are nouns that have been derived from verbs with the suffix -Geo. Nouns formed this way have their own case paradigm. Since -Geo noun endings only differ from buzzard/deer endings in the nominative, accusative, genitive and dative cases this table will exclude the locative cases. Geo-nouns can be either animate or inanimate. Since the causes that created each noun class happened before Old Sumrë gained its locative cases only the nominative, accusative, genitive and dative forms differ in each declension, with the locative causes being identical for every declension.

B-Nouns
There are two patterns of B-nouns which vary depending on whether the derived from stem ended in a consonant or a vowel in East Middle Moca. If the stem is a broken noun then the lost consonant will resurface when the suffix -a is attached.

O-Nouns
The final vowel on the stem is removed when inflected.

In some rare cases an O-noun may have the vowels ų̂, į̂ or a in the nominative plural: arwirala ("wing, feather") > arwiralį̂ ("wings, feathers").

H-Nouns
H-nouns experience an alternation of ∅ (historically the consonant /g/), for animate nouns it becomes /h/ in the oblique singular and plural and in the nominative plural while for inanimate nouns it becomes /k/.

R-Nouns
R-nouns are nouns whose Proto-Sumro-Letaeric ancestor ended in /Vs/ or /Vs/. The forms in Werish tend to end in /VtV/ but rarer forms can end in /VpV VbV/. Both animate and inanimate R-nouns decline in the same way.

Topic Marking
Topic marking in Werish a is one area where there is a distinction between how men and women speak. Topicalisation as used by men is called strong topicalisation and topicalisation as used by women is called weak topicalisation. The various roles of nouns that are topicalised are known as shades. Adjectives that follow the copula may also be topicalised in the same manner as nouns. The closest translation to Werish's topicalisation into English is the definite article "the".

Shade 1
Shade 1 topicalisation emphasizes the subject's role as the agent and is marked with the proclitic d- onto the noun phrase. If the phrase already begins in /d/ then the vowel following the /d/ will be reduplicated after the clitic. If the noun begins in an approximant then the clitic is ad-.

ad-jarwį amwam-awada bîr-ā

TOP-wolf hunt-3S.BUZZ sloth-OBL

"The wolf hunts a sloth"

Shade 2
Shade 2 strong topicalisation emphasizes the object's (direct or indirect) role as the patient and is marked attaching the proclitic l- onto the noun (or a- if the noun begins in VC, in such case the first V is dropped). If the phrase already begins in /l/ then the vowel following the /l/ is reduplicated after the clitic. If the phrase begins in a plosive followed by a back vowel or /ʉ a/ then the proclitic is wi-. If the phrase begins in a back vowel then the proclitic is w-. When the noun begins in any other consonant the /l/ becomes syllabic. Note that a strong topicalised object is placed in the nominative case.

jarwį amwam-awada a-bîra

wolf hunt-3S.BUZZ TOP-sloth.NOM

"A wolf hunts the sloth"

anwinag-ada a-bwa

cut-1S TOP.knife.NOM

"I cut with the knife"

Shade 1
This is marked by the proclitic l- onto the noun phrase (or a- if the noun begins in VC, in such case the first V is dropped). If the phrase already begins in /l/ then the vowel following the /l/ is reduplicated after the clitic. If the phrase begins in a plosive followed by a back vowel or /ʉ a/ then the proclitic is wi-. If the phrase begins in a back vowel then the proclitic is w-. If the phrase begins with /w/ the /w/ becomes /ʁ̞/.

a-jarwį amwam-awada bîr-ā

TOP-wolf hunt-3S.BUZZ sloth-OBL

"The wolf hunts a sloth"

a-jatta nak-umarį ghi-jada

TOP-mouse eat-3S.BUZZ.PST bread-OBL

"The mouse eats bread"

la-larara valaral-awada

TOP-river flow-3S.BUZZ

"The river flows"

ghûšû kan-ama ma

TOP-patter_of_rain please-3S.DEER 1S.OBL

"The patter of the rain pleases me"

wi-ga sabu hagaûnamwaša ma gi

TOP-head POSS boar be.3S.INAN delicious

"The boar's head is delicious"

Shade 2
This is marked by fronting the object to the beginning of the sentence.

bîr-ā jarwį amwam-ama

TOP.sloth-OBL wolf hunt-3S.DEER

"A wolf hunts the sloth"

ghi-jada jatt ñak-umarį

TOP.bread-OBL mouse eat-3S.BUZZ.PST

"A mouse eats the bread"

ma wûšû kan-ama

TOP.1S.OBL patter_of_rain please-3S.DEER

"Patter of the rain pleases me"

gi ga sabu hagaûnamwaša ma

TOP.delicious head POSS boar be.3S.INAN

"A boar's head is delicious"

Shade 3
This is marked by shifting the indirect object to the front of the sentence.

Non-Specificness
Non-specificness is used to refer to objects which do not yet exist, or whose existence is in doubt or hypothetical. This is marked by the prefix i- (if the stem begins in VCC, the first V is dropped). This prefix triggers umlaut to occur on the first vowel of the stem which is as follows:


 * abwa ("knife, blade") > ibwi
 * saikh ("book") > iraikh
 * jiî ("ermine") > ijuî

Adjectives
Werish adjectives must agree to the noun they modify in gender and case but not number. adjectives agreeing with Buzzard and Deer nouns do this by taking on the same endings as the nouns, the animate/inanimate genders act differently as will be described below. Note that adjectives only agree with the non-locative cases, when modifying with a noun inflected in a locative case the adjective will only agree with the gender and number. Note that adjectives always follow the head noun.

Agreeing with buzzard nouns
If an adjective ends in a nasal vowel then no change is needed and can be inflected as is. When a suffix is attached a nasal vowel will become /Vn/:
 * nį̂ ("green") > abwa nį̂ ("green knife") > abwata nîna ("green knife-")

If the adjective ends in a vowel however then it is nasalized. When suffixes beginning in vowels are attached then instead of a nasal vowel the suffix -m- is used:
 * amwa ("brave") > abwa amwą ("brave knife") > abwata amwama ("brave knives-")
 * ja ("big") > abwa ją ("big knife") > abwata jama ("big knife-")
 * arjaka ("strong") > abwa arjaką ("strong knife") > abwata arjakama ("strong knife-")

Agreeing with deer nouns
Adjectives agreeing to deer nouns do not change in any way to agree with deer nouns besides those ending in /da/:
 * sala ("old") > makû sala ("old world")
 * asja ("holy") > makû asja ("holy world")

If the adjective ends in da then rather than a suffix the da becomes ra:
 * jijalada ("correct") > makû jijalara ("correct world")

Agreeing with animate nouns
Adjectives agree to animate nouns by adding the suffix -uda onto the adjective. Adjectives agreeing to animate and inanimate nouns don't take on regular case ending like the deer and buzzard nouns do. Rather -uda has its own case paradigm shown below, this is true only for the nominative, accusative, genitive and dative cases with the locative cases being the same as as they are on nouns. When the adjective ends in a vowel the final vowel of the stem is deleted, when the stem ends in two vowels only the second vowel is deleted. When the adjective ends in a nasal vowel, the nasal vowel becomes /Vn/ when these suffixes are applied.


 * ahwikara ("cold") > lamabu ahwikaruda ("cold trapper")
 * ja ("big") > lamabu jauda ("big trapper")
 * sala ("old") > lamabu saluda (old trapper")

Agreeing with inanimate nouns

 * ja ("big") > jatabu jabu ("big cobweb")
 * jana ("bad") > jatabu janabu ("bad cobweb")
 * tara ("hard") > jatabu tarabu ("hard cobweb")

Adjectives in formal and ritualistic speech
In heavily formal speech, or when partaking in a ritual, or when in reference to a sacred being, adjectives will take on the suffix -wuku. This goes after any case endings that appear on the adjective. Any adjective with this suffix will appear before the noun rather than after.

da-mār-wuku sia vār-a

TOP-wonderful-DIV god wake-3S.DEER

"The wonderful god wakes"

Pronouns and Determiners
Singular Pronouns

Plural Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns
=Verb Phrase= West Middle Moca has the infinitive suffix -a.

Causative
Causative verbs in Werish break a general rule among languages that inflections blocks derivation. This is because the causative suffix -jîta can be placed onto an inflected verb and then itself be further inflected. This implies that the subject of the inflected verb is made to do so by the subject of the inflected causative suffix. In a causative verb the subject that is being caused to perform the action is placed in the oblique case


 * atjîšawia ("to vanish") > tara atjîŝawiumîda ("you vanish") > tara atjîšawiumîdajîta ("to make you vanish") > amwa tara atjîŝawimîdajîtāda ("I make you vanish")

Imperative
The imperative is formed by removing the final consonant of a verb stem.


 * vāra ("to wake up") > vā! ("wake up!")

Supine
As well as the infinitives, Werish has the supine. The supine is a verbal noun used to describe motion and indicates purpose and intention, or as a predicate of another verb. It is formed with the prefix k-. This prefix causes changes to the stem itself. If the verb stem begins in a plosive then the plosive will lenite as shown below. If the verb stem begins in a cluster then when the k- prefix is attached it will place an /e/ between the cluster in the stem (but not in the cluster with the prefix). Some clusters with /v/ may remain, the table below will explain how it is treated in each situation. When in the supine the verb's infinitive suffix will drop. If the verb begins in û then the supine prefix is g. If the verb stem ends in g then this is lost in the supine. Epenthetic word final vowels are also added onto the supine verb.

Some verb stems beginning in /sk/ form the imperative with /kjer/, these verbs descend from Old Sumrë verbs beginning in /gs/:
 * asgiga ("to pour") > akjaru
 * asgghiza ("to tame") > akjarwuda

Adjective Participle
Adjective participles are derived from verbs with the suffixes -ghį (for agreeing with buzzard and deer nouns), -ghinuda (for agreeing with animate nouns) and -wubu (for agreeing with inanimate nouns). When the verb stem ends in a consonant, the consonant is dropped along with the word final epenthetic vowel. The negative forms are -wumu, -ghįwumu, -ghibumu respectively.
 * asjika ("to dig") > asjighį, asjighinuda, asjiwubu
 * atjîšawia ("to vanish") > atjîšawighį, atjîšawighinuda, atjîšawiwubu
 * anwinaga ("to cut") > anwinagghį, anwinagghinuda, anwinawubu

d-abwa anwinag-wumu ma nuku''

TOP-knife cut-PART.NEG be.3S.INAN broken

"The non-cutting knife is broken"

Passive Participle
Passive adjective participles are derive from verbs with the suffixes -uku (for agreeing with buzzard and buzzard nouns), -ukuda (for agreeing with animate nouns) and -îbu (for agreeing with inanimate nouns). The negative forms are -jîmu, -ukamu, -ugumu, -jîbumu.
 * asjika ("to dig") > asjikuku, asjikukuda, asjikjîbu
 * atjîšawia ("to dig") > atjîšawiuku, atjîšawiukuda, atjîšawijîbu
 * anwinaga ("to cut") > anwinaguku, anwinagukuda, anwinagjîbu

d-abwa anwinag-jîmu ma nuku''

TOP-knife cut-PP.NEG be.3S.INAN broken

"The uncut knife is broken"

Momentary Verbs
The suffix -jahada is applied to verbs (after any other suffixes) to imply that the verb was done for a very short time or in small bursts.

d-abwa anwinag-umarį-jahada

TOP-knife cut-3S.INAN.PST-MNT

"The knife cut for a bit"

Jussive mood
The adverb varada ("must, have to") marks an action required by the speaker but also an action or truth that the speaker believes should happen. It has the negative form varjamu.

amwam-ada varada ghiman-a

hunt-1S JUS deer-OBL

"I must hunt a deer"

har-umîda varjamu wûtar-a

throw-2S JUS.NEG fruit-OBL

"You shouldn't throw fruit"

Conditional mood
The adverb galira marks the conditional mood. The negative form is gajimu.

anwik-ada galira

walk-1S COND

"I would walk"

Hortative mood
The hortative mood is used to mark encouragement. When negative this acts as a light imperative. This is marked with the adverb taz. The negative form is tām

sûm-umîda tada a-mûba

travel-2S HORT TOP-mountain

"You should travel to the mountain"

sûm-umîda tāmu a-mûba

travel-2S HORT.NEG TOP-mountain

"You shouldn't travel to the mountain"

=Numbers= The number system in Werish is very typical of Sumro-Letaeric languages, with the order being determined by animacy and agreement determined by the use of adjectives. The way that numbers agree with the head noun can be irregular due to the inflection descending directly from those in Proto-Sumro-Naukl and not experiencing analogy like nouns did. Each number has a "singular" and "plural" form. The plural is used for the meaning "X number of Y" while the singular just means "X Ys" e.g gû abwat ("four knives") vs gwi abwat ("four of the knives").

Order
A number may follow or precede its noun. If the noun is semantically (or grammatically if it is an animate noun) animate then the number follows. If the noun is inanimate then the number goes before the noun:


 * Animate: arjakara adwi ("one bear")
 * Inanimate: daghi sigu ("one flower")

Agreement
Numbers do not agree with the buzzard or deer genders, instead they agree only with animate or inanimate. If a noun has the buzzard or deer gender then the number will agree to the semantic animacy of the noun (i.e if the noun represents a living sentient being). In terms of agreeing with number, the number 1 agrees with no number for obvious reasons. The numbers 2-10 agree with the plural. It is important to note that numbers higher than 10 do not agree whatsoever with the noun.

Numbers only agree with the four traditional cases (nominative, accusative, genitive and dative). For any other case the nominative form of the noun is used. Numbers also only agree with the nouns case if an adjective is modifying the noun, if there is no adjective then the numbers takes the nominative case:


 * arjakara adwi (bear- one-) "one bear" (oblique)
 * arjakalada jamada adghi (bear- big- one-) "one big bear"

Numbers 11-19 The Numbers 11-19 are totally uninflectable and are as follows:
 * 11 adwigu
 * 12 wigu
 * 13 ccagu
 * 14 gigu
 * 15 balagu
 * 16 amwagu
 * 17 asgûgu
 * 18 abwagį̄gu
 * 19 ccîdigu

Numbers 20+ The numbers 20-100 are also don't agree with nouns. The numbers 20-100 are as follows:
 * 20 wijuku
 * 30 gajuku
 * 40 ccuku
 * 50 bajuku
 * 60 majuku
 * 70 asgûtjuku
 * 80 abwaccuku
 * 90 ccîdukjuku
 * 100 gugūwuku

To form numbers such as 25 or 74, the smaller number is placed before the larger number, with the larger number taking the comitative suffix -ada:
 * bala wijukuada (five twenty-) "25"
 * gû asgǔtjukuada (four seventy-) "74"

To form numbers such as 200 or 300, the number gugūwuku ("100") is modified by another number (which may follow or come before). The words for "1000" or "2000" are simply made in this manner by saying "10 100s" or "20 1000s" up until "10,000" which is "100 100s":
 * gugūwuku uku, uku gugūwuku (hundred- two) "200"
 * gugūwuku asgûta, asgûta gugūwuku (hundred- seven) "700"
 * gugūwuku gugį (hundred- ten) "1000"

For more specific numbers like "438" or "694" the smaller number is placed before or after the larger number, with the last number taking the conjunctive clitic -aku ("and"):
 * gugūwuku gû abwagu ccukuada (hundred- four eight thirty-) "438"
 * gugūwuku ba gų ccîdukjukuada (hundred- six four ninety-) "694"