Proto-Sucumian

Proto-Sucumian vocabulary

Proto-Sucumian affixes

Proto-Sucumian names

THREE CONSONANT CLUSTERS DELETED THE MEDIAL ELEMENT WHEN THE CONJUNCTION -QO WAS APPLIED

Proto-Sucumian is a Sumro-Naukl language and is the ancestor of the Sucumian languages. It diverged from Proto-Sumro-Naukl during the 17-27th centuries AN in what is now Sucumia, an archipelago off the south-west coast of Malomanan. The language was spoken by the Sucumians, whose Proto-Sumro-Naukl speaking ancestors had migrated to the island some time earlier.

=Attestation=

Although the language is reconstructed it does have some very minor attestation in Old Sumrë texts written by Sumnė shamans who made frequent contact with the Sucumians. Most Sumnė texts regarding the language of Sucumia were written after Proto-Sucumian had diverged into Light Sucumian and Dark Sucumian respectively but some of Proto-Sucumian is seen in the older texts— either in quotes, notes scribbed in the margins or in stone engravings. Some examples are as follows (with glosses in NPA following the attestions in the original Old Sumrë orthography):


 * - A note for a typical Sucumian greeting. Seemingly made by a Sumnė shaman trying to learn some of the language.

mass sumn waxδ-t m-βlat-śa

be.1S Sumna hand-2S.POSS INT-yell-3S.INAN

"I am a Sumna, does your hand yell? (I am a Sumna, how are you)"


 * rakăses Sukumina rėnărk «khakhpemaraudh žėi atf ailikunė» „ȯlistawhau lemyrȯ hercje nȯkanasȯ sykhtasȯ” - A quote from a Sucumian featured in an Old Sumrë account, with its translation in Old Sumrë following.

xaxpe-maraoδ ġee-i acf ailikune

corpse-3S.POSS.ACC heal-IMP foreigner honest

"heal her corpse, honest foreigner"

=Contact with Old Sumrë= The Sumnė and early Sucumians had a very friendly relationship. The Sumnė that visited tended to be shamans who were interested in studying the Sucumians and their language and it was even in Sucumia that the shamans built the very first library in Malomanan, Mauksakoht. The Sucumians were interested in trading with the Sumnė and allowed shamans to study them in return for gifts and so the Old Sumrë terms for these gifts were quickly loaned into Proto-Sucumian. It was the shamans who introduced dogs to the islands. A common feature of loans is that voiced plosives would becomes voiced fricatives and the cluster /st/ in an onset would be loaned as /t/ [ts], /st/ elsewhere would be loaned with an epenthetic /e/ while becoming /t/ [ts] also. The cluster /kw/ was borrowed as /qʷ/.


 * *taġ- ("book") < OS thaigh ("book")
 * *Taġβar ("island name") < OS thaighvar ("library, island name")
 * *ron- ("dog") < OS ron ("dog")
 * *suna- ("A Sumna, A Sumnė person") < OS sumna ("A Sumna, A Sumnė person")
 * *etaβiβo ("dog leash") < OS ''estibӑbo' ("dog leash")
 * *etaβiβoβar- ("area where dogs sleep, kennel") < OS estӑbibovar ("tree or post used to tie dog leashes around")

The shamans even introduced the Sumnė calendar so terms for the calendar in Proto-Sucumian are wholly loans from Old Sumrë, albeit the day names had *wośt- ("day") added onto them (despite the -on already being an Old Sumrë shortening of onta "day", with which *wośt- is a cognate).


 * *aatə̌lġa- ("week") < OS aatylga ("week")
 * *δaβonwośt- < OS Dӑvon ("first day of the week")
 * *reġβirδonwośt- < OS Rėgwirdon ("second day of the week")
 * *etə̌rtonwośt- < OS Estyrson ("third day of the week")
 * *lutonwośt- < OS Luston ("fourth day of the week")
 * *erβonwośt- < OS Erbon ("fifth day of the week")


 * *pejəroġa- ("month") < OS pėjürotga ("month")
 * *nontes- < OS Nonsaes ("first month")
 * *isaġʷnes- < OS Iswagnaes ("second month")
 * *jekones- < OS Jekdwonaes ("third month")
 * *sepaġanes- < OS Sėpagananaes ("fourth month")
 * *lutenes- < OS Lussnaes ("fifth month")
 * *ə̌lenes- < OS Lhennaes ("sixth month")
 * *tə̌rnes- < OS Türrnaes ("seventh month")
 * *spontenas- < OS Spontenaes ("eighth month")


 * *nirilefskaal- < OS Nirilefskaal ("spring")
 * *lanlonane- < OS Lamlomanė ("Summer")
 * *qʷulnes- < OS Kwulnaes ("autumn")
 * *lamjuka- < OS Lamñuka ("winter")

=Name= The adjective Sucumian is derived from the nation name Sucumia which is an anglicization of Sukumi which was an exonym given to the island by Old Sumrë speakers. Sukumi in Old Sumrë is from the prefix ś- which derives island names and the adjective kumi ("tame, domestic, occupied"). So named for the Sucumians were the first permanent island dwellers (they "occupied" the islands) they had encountered. The islands had the endonym *seġans in Proto-Sucumian, from *se- ("island") and *ġans- ("gem") and from this they derived the endonym for Proto-Sucumian which was *seġansraass (*raass- "language").

=Phonology= Proto-Sucumian is transcribed using the Nebyetic Phonetic Alphabet.

Vowels
preserves ǐ

Consonants

 * After the palatal plosive /c/, /β/ becomes [w].
 * The alveolar plosive /t/ becomes the affricate [t͡s] when in the onset.

Phonological History
ç > c

b d g(j) gʷ> β ð ʝ ʝʷ

v>β

æ > e(ː)

V>Ø/#_! diphthongs or long vowels (which then shorten)

f > p/#F_

iw uw > u:

ɔ > ɑ

ɑ >u/(K)_(K)

ɑ > o

FC > CF/_#

β > w/c_

ə > ɜ

C{r l} {r l}C > {r l}:

o > e/o..._

t > ts/$_

ø > y

ow aʊ> oː

ʉ > i

h > χ

a > o/(Q)_(Q)

F1F2 > F1F1/_#

V V:>Ø V/V[+stress](C)_

ʊ > o

ɘ > u͡i

=Noun Phrase= In Proto-Sucumian no solid distinction was made between nouns and adjectives, with both inflecting for case and number the same way (albeit with adjectives agreeing to the noun's gender) and with nouns being freely zero-derived from adjectives.

Agreement
Adjectives follow the noun and must agree to the gender of the noun before taking on further case/number suffixes. Agreement to animate nouns is unmarked while agreement to inanimate nouns is marked. Monosyllabic stems do not need to have any suffixes in order to agree but Monosyllabic V stems mark agreement via metathesis of CF# > FC#. Polysyllabic stems must take on the suffix -o (or -e if the syllable before contains /o/, or -u if the preceding consonant is /k/):


 * *storx- ("true") > seġ stoxr ("true sense")
 * *tor- ("hard") > seġ tor ("hard sense")
 * *xasra ("heavy") > βart xasraxo ("heavy weapon")
 * *βarkot- ("useful") > βart βarkote ("useful weapon")
 * *pak- ("green") > βart paku ("green weapon")

Case
Proto-Sucumian nouns and adjectives are fusional and inflect for two genders (animate vs inanimate), three numbers (singular and plural) and eight cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, allative I, allative II, elative and ablative).

Nominative
Denotes the subject of the verb.

Accusative
Denotes the direct object of a verb. Also used for expressions of time and distance.

Genitive
Marks possession.

Dative
marks the indirect object of a verb.

Allative I
Marks indirect motion to an object or to nearby an object. Is built from the genitive singular case. Also marks the object of verbs of indirect motion (usually implying a lack of valency by the subject, or implying that the intended action failed):

qʷemnins tulk-śś δoβ-∅-nu

hunter shoot-3S.ANIM.PST wolf.GEN-ALLI

"the hunter shot at the wolf (and didn't hit/kill it)"

Allative II
Marks direct motion to an object. Is built from the genitive singular case. Also marks the object of verbs of motion ("to shoot, to walk to, to thrust, give"):

qʷemnins tulk-śś mal-∅ δoβ-∅-null

hunter shoot-3S.ANIM.PST arrow.ACC wolf-GEN-ALLII

"The hunter shot an arrow at the wolf"

Elative
Marks movement out of, off of or down from. Is built from the genitive singular case. Specifically used to refer to movement out/off of structures (or features of the landscape that surround you like a forest or cave) or raised landscape (such as hills, ridges, slopes):

laxu-suut muuβoź-a-nuur

run-1S.FUT mountain-GEN-ELA

"I will run down from the mountain"

Ablative
Marks movement away from. Is built from the genitive singular case. Specifically used to refer to movement away from locations such as villages or sites but also movement away from an area nearby the object. When attached to a supine it refers movement away from where an action takes place:

laxu-ss δoβ-∅ k-rak-nuβm δokġ-∅

run-1S.PST wolf SUP-kill-ABL goat-ACC

"I ran away from where the wolf killed the goat"

Origin of the locative cases
The locative cases are innovations of Proto-Sucumian which were built on combinations of the stem *nwa- ("near, vicinity, area"). It started with the stem being placed after a noun (itself in the genitive case) to give the meaning "to where X is, to the vicinity of X". This then became the allative I suffix *-nu to denote indirect motion towards an object:


 * *rakt nwa ("to the vicinity of the tree") > *raktnu ("to around the tree")
 * *δə̌risa nwa ("to the vicinity of the heron") > *δə̌risanu ("to around the heron")

The allative II case, marking direct motion to an object, was formed from *nwa- followed by the postposition *joll- ("within"). This became the suffix *-null.:
 * *rakt nwa joll ("to within the tree's vicinity") > *raktnull ("to the tree")
 * *δə̌risa nwa joll ("to within the heron's vicinity") > *δə̌risanull ("to the heron")

The elative case is from *nwa- followed by the postposition *jar- ("from") to denote movement out of or off of, becoming the suffix *-nuur:


 * *rakt nwa jar ("from the tree's vicinity") > *raktnuur ("off of the tree")
 * *δə̌risa nwa jar ("from the heron's vicinity") > *δə̌risanuur ("out from the heron")

The ablative case is from *nwa- followed by the postposition *toβm- ("outside of") to denote movement away from, becoming the suffix *-nuβm:
 * *rakt nwa toβm ("outside of the tree's vicinity") > *raktnuβm ("away from the tree")
 * *δə̌risa nwa toβm ("outside of the heron's vicinity") > *δə̌risanuβm ("away from the heron")

A common feature to all declensions is the addition of /χ/ when a vowel hiatus is formed across morpheme boundaries. Adjectives agree to the noun in terms of gender, case and number and they inflect just like nouns. There are various declensions which are as follows:

Monosyllabic Stems I
Monosyllabic stems contain only one syllable and are distinguished by syncope of vowels (or shortening of long vowels) occurring after the stressed syllable of the stem.

Monosyllabic Stems II
This group of nouns contains inanimate monosyllables that end in the consonants /r/ or /l/. In this declension the inanimate accusative plural is marked by geminating the final /r/ or /l/.

Monosyllabic Stems III
This declension contains nouns that contain /o/ or /oː/ in the final syllable. In this declension every suffix beginning in /o/ begins with /e/ instead.

Monosyllabic Stems IV
This declension contains nouns that are a mixture of the above, ending in /or/ or /ol/. Like MS II nouns the inanimate accusative plural is -rr/-ll while every suffix beginning in /o/ instead begins with /e/.

Monosyllabic Stems V
This declension may look and inflect like any of the above but nouns in this declension experience metathesis in the stem where a word final fricative after a consonant flips place with the consonant when inflected.

Polysyllabic Stems II
This group of nouns/adjectives contains inanimate polysyllables that end in the consonants /r/ or /l/. In this declension the inanimate accusative plural is marked by geminating the final /r/ or /l/ followed by the suffix -u.

Polysyllabic Stems III
This declension contains nouns that contain /o/ or /oː/ in the final syllable. In this declension every suffix beginning in /o/ begins with /e/ instead. This includes adjectives that take on -o t agree with inanimate nouns.

Polysyllabic Stems IV
This declension contains inanimate nouns that are a mixture of the above, ending in /or/ or /ol/. Like PS II nouns the inanimate accusative plural is -rr/-ll while every suffix beginning in /o/ instead begins with /e/.

Polysyllabic Stems V
This declension may look and inflect like any of the above but nouns in this declension experience metathesis in the stem where a word final fricative after a consonant flips place with the consonant when inflected.

Polysyllabic Stems VI
Polysyllabic stems are distinguished by their word final /k/, causing the acc.sg/pl animate and gen.sg/pl inanimate to contain the vowel /u/ instead of /o/.

Adjective Order
Within a noun phrase, attributive adjectives follow a strict order, ranging from more "animate" adjectives appearing closer to the left edge of the clause than "inanimate adjectives". In this specific context an animate adjective is one that describes qualities like "moving, alive" while inanimate adjectives describe qualities like "unmoving, non-living". There are 4 slots in which in adjective may appear which are:


 * 1) Alive, dead
 * 2) Taking, making a sound, silent
 * 3) Moving, still
 * 4) Emotional
 * 5) Good, bad
 * 6) Colour
 * 7) Else

So for example the phrase masβtare jaġ δarll uur ("good calm and bright buzzard" - lit. "buzzard calm good bright") is correct but *masβtare δarll jaġ uur ("buzzard good calm shining") is ungrammatical.

Comparative
Adjectives are made comparative by reduplicating the first syllable onto the end of the adjective. If the adjective is one syllable then only the first CV will reduplicate in some instances:
 * *xeźtalac- ("unreasonable") > *xeźtalacxe ("more unreasonable")
 * *xġal- ("at risk") > *xġalxġal ("more at risk")
 * *βe- ("injured") > *βeβe- ("more injured")
 * *wuδδ- ("big") > *wuδδwu ("bigger")

Some irregular comparatives are:
 * *pak- ("green") > *kapkap ("greener")
 * *lluullśβom- ("different) > *lluullośβoma ("more different")

A noun is compared to by using a construction translating to ("X is as Y but Z-er"):

waskδea maśs warstu tośβ maδ wuδδwu

bison be.3S squirrel as but big-COMP

"the bison is bigger than the squirrel"

Deriving Adjectives
Adjectives of ability are derived from verbs by attaching the suffix *-nas (on monosyllabic stems) or *-enas (on polysyllabic stems). Note that even these adjectives can be zero-derived to become nouns:
 * *xixkδota ("to die") > *xixkδoenas ("able to to die, mortal")
 * *laxuta ("to run") > *laxuenas ("able to run")
 * *xatδ ("to breathe") > *xaδnas ("able to breathe, alive, creature")

Adjectives to describe that a verb can be performed on an object attach the suffix *-enas to the past participle form of the verb:
 * *xixkδota ("to die") > *xixkδoikenas ("killable, prey")
 * *laxuta ("to run") > *laxuikenas ("runnable, short distance")
 * *xatδ ("to breathe") > *xaδkenas ("breathable")

Zero-Derivation
One of the biggest methods of creating new nouns is to simply zero derive nouns from adjective to denote nouns that possess said quality. This is an extremely productive method and is popular for making ad hoc nouns:


 * *βe- ("crippled, injured, lame") > ("cripple, injured person")
 * *xaxpe- ("empty, drained, depleted") > ("corpse, empty vessel")
 * *xeźtalac- ("unreasonable, dismissive") > ("unreasonable person, disease, illness")
 * *sais- ("deformed, warped, bent") > ("bow (of archery)")

Zero-derivation also happens to participles of verbs. The adjective participle (or present participle) can be used to derive agentive nouns or nouns association with the verb. The past participle can be used to derive nouns that are a result of or are acted upon by said verb:


 * *sġall ("to bob up and down (of air bladders)") > *sġaln ("bobbing up and down") > ("air bladder")
 * *qetx ("to gather in a crowd") > *qekx ("gathered in a crowd") > ("crowd")

Noun-Number compounds
Number-Noun compounds derive nouns that own a certain amount of the compounded noun. So for example a *raktδoo ("one tree") is a piece of land that has only one tree.

=Pronouns=

=Verb Phrase=

PS NEGATIVE VERB FORM PSN əwvehæc- "to scream". Bare stem is used after it

Monosyllabic Stems
FIRST ONE IS THE UPDATED BETTER ONE

Monosyllabic II Stems
These stems ends in /r/ or /l/ which cause the first person to be marked by geminating the final consonant rather than with -s.

Monosyllabic III Stems
These stems end in a fricative. The infinitive form is distinguished by how /t/ is infixed before the final fricative. The first singular person is marked by geminating the final fricative rather than with -s.

Polysyllabic I Stems
FIRST ONE IS BETTER

Polysyllabic II Stems
These stems ends in /r/ or /l/ which cause the first person to be marked by geminating the final consonant rather than with -s.

Polysyllabic III Stems
These stems contain /o/ in the final syllable of the stem, causing the third person singular suffixes to contain /e/ rather than /o/.

Polysyllabic IV Stems
Polysyllabic IV Stems end in /k/, causing the third person singular suffixes to contain /u/ instead of /o/. If the verb contains /o/ before the /k/ then it inflects like an IV stem and not a III stem.

Perfect Aspect
The perfect aspect is marked with the suffix *-x (for monosyllabic stems) or *-xa (for polysyllabic stems). There are some verbs which require more explanation due to irregularities caused by Proto-Sucumian sound changes which will be explained below.

When the verb is polysyllabic the suffix is -xa, causing the verb to inflect as a Polysyllabic I stem:
 * *xuġβaśta (*xuġβaś- "to approach") > *xuġβaśxata ("to have approached")
 * *allokta (*allok- "to harass verbally") > *allokxata ("to have harassed verbally")

When the verb is a Monosyllabic/Polysyllabic II stem then the perfect form resembles the infinitive form, causing the verb to inflect as a Monosyllabic/Polysyllabic I stem:
 * *rall (*ral- "to run") > *rallt ("to have run")
 * *cə̌βlorolla (*cə̌βlorol- "to flow") > *cə̌βlorollata ("to have flowed")

When the verb is monosyllabic the suffix is -x, causing the verb to inflect as a Monosyllabic III stem:
 * *cβet (*cβe- "To scare fish towards the shore") > *cβetx ("to have scared fish towards the shore")

When the verb is a Monosyllabic III stem and has the shape VC then the first vowel will drop and the suffix *-xa is attached, causing the verb to inflect as a Monosyllabic I stem:
 * *atf (*af- "to remove") > *fxat ("to have removed")

When the verb is a Monosyllabic III stem and the Proto-Sumro-Naukl forms began in a long vowel, then the final consonant is geminated and inflected as a Monosyllabic III stem:
 * *atβ (*aβ- "to be adept") > *atββ ("to have been adept")

Interrogative Mood
The interrogative mood is formed by placing the prefix *m- onto the verb:
 * *δoxδδ ("I make") > *mδoxδδ? ("do I make?")
 * *sfaźkuś ("it destroys") > *msfaźkuś? ("does it destroy?")

Imperative Mood
The imperative mood is marked with the suffix *-i (for monosyllabic stems) or *-ju (for polysyllabic stems):
 * *cβet (*cβe- "to scare fish towards the shore") > *cβei ("scare fish towards the shore!")
 * *xixkδota ("to die") > *xixkδoju ("die!")

If a monosyllabic verb stem has the shape VC then the vowel will drop and the suffix *-i is applied:
 * *atβ (*aβ- "to be adept at") > *βi ("be adept!")

If the verb is a Monosyllabic II stem then the imperative suffix is *-u after the final consonant being geminated:
 * *rall (*ral- "to rise") > *rallu ("rise!")
 * *sġall (*sġal- "to bob up and down (of air bladders)") > *sġallu ("bob up and down!" - Not said as a literal command to the air bladder but it is believed that saying this aids in hunting seals and whaling)

Middle Voice
The Middle Voice was innovated in Proto-Sucumian by turning the word *waxδexo ("hand-") into the suffix *-waxo which is placed onto the verb before any other verb endings. The middle voice is used when the subject is the same as the object ("I see myself"), or when the subject is a semantic patient of a transitive verb where the agent is omitted due to being unknown or irrelevant ("the door opens").

δaβ δanemoź-waxo-xecś

wolf understand-MID-3S.ANIM.PST

"the wolf understood itself"

mal tunġ-waxo-xeś

arrow aim-MID-3S.INAN

"the arrow aims/the arrow is aimed"

The middle voice can also be used derivationally to derive intransitive verbs from transitive verbs:
 * *atf ("to remove") > *afwaxota ("to be removed")
 * *lequcβuta ("to hide") > *lequcβuwaxota ("to be hidden, to be out of sight, to be vague")
 * *βotjatta ("to lactate") > *βotjatwaxota ("to have one's nipple sucked")
 * *xanscta ("to roll") > *xanscwaxota ("to be rolled, to be unrolled, to be unthirled")
 * *jalxeta ("to expand, to grow, to spread") > *jalxewaxota ("to swell")
 * *poll ("to hew") > *polwaxota ("to be hewn")

Passive Voice
The passive voice is expressed by combining the past participle of the verb with the verb *tulkt ("to shoot"). Agents of such verbs are put in the elative case:
 * *atf ("to remove") > *tulkt akf ("to be removed")
 * *ġeet ("to heal") > *tulkt ġeek ("to be healed")

βarta tulk-śa xuġβaś-ik kuull-nuur

shelter shoot-3S.INAN approach-PP sea_fog-ELA

"The shelter is being approached by sea fog"

Preverbs
The preverbs of Proto-Sucumian are postpositions that have been placed onto verbs as prefixes to derived new verbs.

*xaβ- (“in”)
The preverb *xaβ- derives verbs that imply motion inwards or towards the referent:
 * *cəβlǒrella ("to flow") > *xaβcəβlǒrella ("to influence")
 * *δapəweta ("to dig") > *xaβδapəweta ("to collapse in on oneself, to faint, to implode")
 * *δiśrasə̌ta ("to hold") > *xaβδiśrasə̌ta ("to keep secret, to hold one's breath, to need to pee/shit")
 * *δuupita ("to swing, to hurl, to wind") > *xaβδuupita ("reverberate, to vibrate, to whirl, to wolf down")
 * *raatδ ("to speak") > *xaβraatδ ("to whisper")

Non-finite forms
The infinitive is formed with the suffix *-ta (*δə̌xspeta "to weave"). On monosyllabic verb stems the suffix is merely -t (*δukt "to drink"). In metathetic verb stems the /t/ is placed before the final fricative of the verb stem when the stem is monosyllabic (*δultδ "to hide"). On verbs ending in /r/ or /l/ the infinitive is marked by geminating the final /r/ or /l/ and adding -a (added only for polysyllabic stems - *miqʷll "to be able", *cə̌βlorella "to flow").

The supine is a verbal noun/infinitive used to describe motion and indicates purpose and intention. It is formed with the prefix *k- (*kδuk "to drink"). The supine can be quite irregular when the verb stem begin in a vowel in Proto-Sumro-Naukl. The stress of Proto-Sumro-Naukl and Proto-Sucumian was that it always fell on the first syllable that contained an onset, so stems beginning in vowels wouls stress the second syllable. When Proto-Sucumian lost word initial vowels and dropped vowels (or shortened long vowels) after stressed syllables this caused the supine forms to become irregular. This was due to the supine prefix *k- creating an onset for the initial syllable of such verbs causing stress to fall on the initial syllable rather than the second. As well as shielding the initial vowel from being dropped it also caused different vowels to be dropped due to the shift in stress:

Adjectival participles are formed with the suffix *-un or -n on monosyllabic stems. The suffix also acts as an agentive suffix to derive nouns (*δə̌xspeun "weaving, weaver", *δukn "drinking, drinker"). The past participle is formed with *-ik or *-k on monosyllabic stems and can also be used as a noun that is the result of the action (*δə̌xspeik "woven, blanket", *δukk "drank").

Deriving Verbs
Quite unlike its mainland relatives, Proto-Sucumian has very little in the way of deriving new verbs via affixes. Instead it relies mostly on compounding to produce new verbs. There are various methods of compounding such as Noun-Verb compounds, Adjective-Verb compounds and Verb-Verb compounds.

Noun-Verb compounds
Noun-Verb compounds denote an action to which the noun is the typical object of. Especially if the noun was derived from a participle then the compound means "to X during Y" but also "to X by doing Y".


 * *sə̌kx- ("intelligence") + *sfaźkta ("to give") > *sə̌kxsfaźkta ("to tell, to inform, to teach, to educate")
 * *βans- ("name") + *sfaźkta ("to give") > *βanssfaźkta ("to name")
 * *βemðap- ("honey") + *βuuklta ("to raid") > *βemðapβuuklta ("to extract honey from a beehive")
 * *δaβmo- ("silence") + *castll ("to turn") > *δaβmocastll ("to break silence")
 * *βuuklun ("raiding, raid", participle of *βuuklta "to raid") + *xixkδota ("to die") > *βuuklunxixkδota ("to die during a raid")
 * *wiskolas- ("fire") + *βlat ("to yell, to make noise, to give away one's position") > *wiskolasβlata ("to give away one's position with a torch or bonfire, to signal")
 * *δexuδun ("shrinking, something that shrinks", participle of *δexuδta "to shrink") + *δukt ("to drink") > *δexuδunδukta ("for a water bag to shrink as someone drinks from it")

Verb-Verb compounds
=Numbers=